The Elements of Innovation Discovered
The Elements of Innovation Discovered
Critical Minerals Alliances 2024 - September 16, 2024
Vanadium redox flow batteries are beginning to encroach on Li-ion's territory as grid-scale applications, storing hundreds of megawatt-hours of energy, lasting over 20 years, and getting cheaper and more efficient with each new iteration.
Vanadinite is a brittle, dense mineral that is a primary industrial source of vanadium. Although the element vanadium is abundant, it is quite rare in its metallic form.
The first redox-flow batteries were developed by Lawrence Thaller and his group at NASA in the 1970s as potential energy storage for solar-powered deep-space missions.
Vanadium redox flow batteries have reached commercial viability and are gaining in popularity, creating a demand for the metal beyond traditional use as an alloying element.
Although vanadium is an abundant element, it is quite rare in its metallic form. That fact, combined with its position as a strategic metal for industry, national defense, and the green energy transition, has put it squarely on the list of critical minerals.
According to the United States Geological Survey (USGS), "Estimated U.S. apparent consumption of vanadium in 2023 increased by 27% from that in 2022. Metallurgical use, primarily as an alloying agent for iron and steel, accounted for about 94% of domestic reported vanadium consumption in 2023."
The most well-known and widespread use of vanadium is in the production of steel, rebar, and other building materials, where just one pound of ferro-vanadium added to a ton of steel almost doubles its strength, making it essential for construction projects.
By 2025, industry projections estimate that 85% of all cars will incorporate vanadium alloys, a shift expected to reduce vehicle weight, thereby increasing fuel efficiency in traditional internal combustion engine vehicles and extending the range of electric vehicles.
The demand for vanadium extends beyond steel production, with titanium-aluminum-vanadium alloy manufacturers emerging as the largest consumers in this space, driving significant growth in the marketplace.
Furthermore, vanadium alloys are indispensable for manufacturing fuel-efficient aircraft, as no substitutes can match their performance. These alloys also exhibit superconducting properties, such as vanadium-gallium tape, which is used in superconducting magnets.
As the need for efficient energy storage solutions grows, vanadium redox flow batteries are emerging as a key driver of future demand for this critical metal, particularly for grid-scale storage of renewable energy.
With the surging demand for lithium-ion batteries in consumer electronics and EVs, safer and longer-lasting alternatives like vanadium flow batteries are being sought. These batteries are nonflammable, compact, capable of discharging 100% of stored energy, and have a lifespan exceeding 20 years.
Additionally, vanadium recycling is mainly focused on reprocessing catalysts into new ones, further enhancing its value.
While solar and wind power generate clean and cost-effective electricity, their production is as unpredictable as the weather. To realize a future where grids rely entirely on renewable energy, vast amounts of battery storage are essential to prevent blackouts.
The first redox-flow batteries were developed by Lawrence Thaller and his group at NASA in the 1970s as potential energy storage for solar-powered deep-space missions.
Vanadium flow batteries, which are powered by reduction-oxidation (redox) reactions, involve two different liquid electrolytes, both made from vanadium, that pass ions back and forth through a porous membrane. These batteries can store larger amounts of energy – as much as the size of the electrolyte cells can contain – and don't use flammable or polluting materials.
More than 20 flow battery chemistries, including iron-chromium, zinc-bromine, zinc-cerium, zinc-ion and magnesium-vanadium, have been studied, with vanadium redox standing out as the preferred technology, closest to wide commercial adoption.
Vanadium, the dominant material cost in the electrolyte, is mined from Russia, China, Brazil and South Africa, although there are reserves in the U.S. and Canada.
Secondary vanadium is produced in Arkansas, Ohio, and Pennsylvania from waste materials such as petroleum residues, spent catalysts, and utility ash. These processed materials are then used to create vanadium pentoxide, vanadium-bearing chemicals, specialty alloys, and ferrovanadium.
Even the U.S. Army is getting in on flow batteries.
In partnership with Lockheed Martin, the U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development Center team at the Construction Engineering Research Laboratory Operational Energy broke ground in late 2022 on a redox flow battery featuring electrochemistry consisting of engineered electrolytes.
"Bottom line is, the Lockheed Martin flow battery will provide a feasible means of long-duration grid scale energy storage to Fort Carson and their mission-critical assets that no other Army installation currently possesses," Tom Decker, Army program manager, said. "This is a significant tool and has potential to make an impact on future military bases."
Vanadium flow and lithium-ion batteries each excel in different areas, making them better suited for specific applications.
With proper maintenance, vanadium redox flow batteries can be charged and discharged indefinitely, lasting 15-25 years with minimal performance decline, and scaling up capacity is as simple as installing larger electrolyte tanks.
They are best suited for stationary industrial and utility applications, where capacity, safety, and lifespan are more important than energy density.
Vanadium flow batteries also have a more favorable environmental footprint, and the vanadium electrolyte can be reused when the battery needs to be replaced. However, vanadium batteries are generally more expensive.
Due to their high energy density and rapid charging capabilities, lithium-ion batteries are particularly well-suited for mobile devices and electric vehicles, providing the necessary output levels for these applications.
However, lithium-ion batteries have a shorter lifespan, with their energy storage capacity dropping over several years of usage. In stationary applications, they typically last for about 10,000 cycles or 15 years. Damaged lithium-ion batteries can also be fire hazards.
For grid-scale applications, lithium-ion batteries have further shortcomings. Battery packs capable of storing megawatt-hours require many thousands or even millions of cells, all requiring individual and collective monitoring.
Vanadium is typically produced as a byproduct or co-product of elements like iron, uranium, molybdenum, or phosphorus, with only about 20% of global vanadium output coming from primary production.
Vanadinite is a brittle, dense mineral that is a primary industrial source of vanadium. Although the element vanadium is abundant, it is quite rare in its metallic form.
The rest is sourced from feedstocks such as Idaho ferrophosphorus slag, petroleum residues, spent catalysts, utility ash, and vanadium-bearing iron slag. While some vanadium is recovered through solution mining, this method remains economically marginal.
In the U.S., Energy Fuels produces high-purity vanadium at its White Mesa Mill in Utah, which also processes uranium and rare earths.
U.S. Vanadium manufactures high-purity vanadium pentoxide for various applications, including vanadium redox flow batteries, at its Hot Springs, Arkansas plant.
Additionally, AMG Vanadium recently completed a $300-million expansion of its Ohio facility, which focuses on recycling spent catalysts and vanadium-bearing residues into specialty metals.
Globally, over 200 vanadium redox flow battery projects have been deployed across North America, Europe, Australia, and Asia, with China's 100-megawatt Dalian system being the largest in the world, commissioned in 2022.
As vanadium flow batteries gain traction as a solution for grid-scale energy storage, the demand for vanadium and the companies producing these essential battery materials is expected to rise in the coming years.
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