Projects, initiatives, and technology expand scandium supply chain security.

While it may not have quite as strong a chemical bond to its adopted lanthanide siblings as they do each other, scandium does possess similar enough characteristics and is almost always found at the same geological gatherings (deposits) as the rest of its rare earth family.

Named for the Latin word for Scandinavia, "Scandia," – as the mineral was thought to only dwell off the Nordic peninsula – scandium was theoretically predicted to exist after Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev devised the periodic table of elements in 1869.

10 years later, Mendeleev's postulate would come true as Lars Frederick Nilson, a Swedish chemist, discovered the element in 1879, adding the 21st element to the periodic table.

Scandium is not considered rare in Earth's crust, with estimates varying between 18 to 25 parts per million, comparable in abundance to cobalt. However, scandium is distributed sparsely and occurs in trace amounts in many minerals, including alongside rare earth elements.

Beyond its close chemical and geological ties to rare earths, scandium is considered a critical mineral in its own right due to its traditional alloying qualities and emerging high-tech properties.

Aleris

A technician applies a coating to aluminum-magnesium-scandium alloy – called AA5028 – developed by Aleris in collaboration with Airbus.

Scandium's primary and most enduring use is in lightweight and strong aluminum-scandium alloys, widely used in aerospace components and sports equipment. In recent years, solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) have become another major application area for scandium due to their ability to improve the efficiency and longevity of these cells.

Additionally, scandium is finding increasing use in ceramics, electronics, lasers, lighting, and metal 3D printing, reflecting its versatility and growing demand across various high-tech industries.

According to the U.S. Geological Survey's 2024 Mineral Commodity Summaries, the United States remains 100% reliant on imports for its scandium supplies.

These imports primarily come from Europe, China, Japan, and Russia. Like many critical elements, scandium imports are difficult to track due to proprietary restrictions and national security concerns, making it challenging to fully understand the supply chain.

Nevertheless, the geopolitical risks are evident, particularly with the ongoing Russia-Ukraine conflict, which underlies the vulnerability of relying on Russian imports, a significant global supplier of this critical mineral.

Given the growing critical role it will play in high-tech and defense applications, securing a stable and domestic supply of scandium is of paramount importance. This urgency has spurred various initiatives to explore and develop scandium resources within North America.

One notable effort is the advancement of aluminum-scandium alloy production by Rio Tinto, positioning North America as a potential key player in the global scandium market.

Scandium from aluminum

Though scandium is often associated with rare earths, most of the global supply of this alloying metal is recovered as a byproduct of titanium, zirconium, cobalt, nickel, and aluminum production.

As it so happens, the largest aluminum producer in North America and fourth largest in the world, Rio Tinto, has chosen to capitalize on its vast alumina capabilities by developing a scandium recovery facility at its Fer et Titane metallurgical complex in Sorel-Tracy, Quebec.

Completing the complex in 2021, this C$6 million (US$4.8 million) project, supported by a C$650,000 (US$520,000) contribution from the government of Quebec, positioned Rio Tinto as the first North American producer of high-purity scandium oxide, capable of supplying approximately 20% of the global market.

Rio Tinto

Rio Tinto's Fer et Titane metallurgical complex in Quebec includes a scandium recovery plant.

Running at full capacity, the facility produces roughly three metric tons of scandium oxide per year – global demand for scandium is estimated to be between 30 and 40 metric tons annually. With 99.99% scandium prices fluctuating between US$4,000 and US$20,000 per kilogram (2.2 pounds), this market has presented a significant opportunity for Rio Tinto.

The plant extracts high-purity scandium oxide from the waste streams of titanium dioxide production at its Lac Tio mine near Havre-Saint-Pierre, Quebec. This strategic alignment allows the scandium recovered from the plant to integrate seamlessly with Rio Tinto's aluminum operations in the Saguenay–Lac-Saint-Jean region of Quebec.

"With the support of Rio Tinto's aluminium business, we are uniquely positioned to deliver aluminium-scandium master alloys and develop synergies with North America's manufacturing supply chain," said Rio Tinto Iron and Titanium managing director Stéphane Leblanc.

In 2022, Rio Tinto announced plans to quadruple its scandium oxide production capacity from three to twelve metric tons per year by 2024. This expansion, part of a C$30-35 million (US$22-26 million) project, aims to meet over 50% of the estimated global demand for scandium.

"With this breakthrough process creating value from waste, Rio Tinto et Titane's ambition is to become a key supplier in the global scandium market," said Leblanc. "I want to congratulate our employees who brought this project from the drawing board to commercial demonstration in less than two years."

To fully realize the potential of its future scandium business, Rio Tinto formed Element North 21, a business to commercialize its scandium products.

Deriving its name from scandium's number on the periodic table and the business' Canadian headquarters, Element North 21 initially offers three scandium products – 99.9% pure scandium oxide, a standard aluminum-scandium alloy, and specialized aluminum-scandium alloys for aerospace and 3D printing applications.

Furthermore, the company said it would be able to scale up scandium production to meet market demands by adding additional modules to its scandium recovery plant in Quebec.

By expanding its scandium production capabilities, Rio Tinto's efforts have strengthened North America's supply chain for this critical material, thereby reducing dependency on imports.

Unlike Rio Tinto's approach of producing scandium as a byproduct of aluminum production, other North American operations are advancing scandium production and recovery through both recycling of rare earth elements and straightforward mining methods.

Scandium production initiatives

Presently, several projects in North America, as well as allied nations, are advancing scandium production and recovery through various methods, either directly or indirectly.

To aid in the future establishment of a stable scandium supply, a diverse group of companies is spearheading efforts in scandium mining and processing, leading the way through innovative projects and strategic collaborations. These companies include:

• USA Rare Earth LLC and Texas Mineral Resources Corp.'s Round Top project in Texas offers a potential significant supply of scandium. The vast deposit at this project would also provide a domestic source of rare earths and lithium, further bolstering its importance to the U.S. economy.

• NioCorp Developments Ltd. is advancing the Elk Creek project in Nebraska, which focuses on niobium alongside titanium and scandium. NioCorp is collaborating with automakers to develop aluminum-scandium vehicle parts, highlighting scandium's strategic role in enhancing vehicle performance and sustainability.

• Energy Fuels Inc. is expanding into rare earth element production with a new separation facility at their White Mesa Mill in Utah, expected to be operational by early 2024. This facility aims to produce up to 15,000 tons of rare earth oxides annually, which should include scandium as a byproduct.

• Ucore Rare Metals Inc.'s Bokan-Dotson Ridge rare earths project in Alaska is enriched in scandium. They are also advancing the RapidSX rare earths separation technology to be installed at their Louisiana Strategic Metals Complex, which is expected to recover scandium alongside the rare earths.

• Scandium Canada Ltd. is advancing the Crater Lake project in Quebec, conducting fieldwork and metallurgical pilot tests with a goal of completing a prefeasibility study by 2025. They have also been developing aluminum-scandium powders for 3D printing since 2021.

Outside of North America, Australian companies have begun seeing the value and strategic importance of mining this critical resource. These include:

• Scandium International Mining Corp. is developing the Nyngan project in southeastern Australia, which is one of the few primary scandium projects globally. This project aims to produce scandium oxide and integrate it into the global supply chain.

• Sunrise Energy Metals Ltd. is advancing the Sunrise project in southeastern Australia, aiming to become a major supplier of high-purity scandium oxide in the coming years.

While many companies are working on developing deposits to retrieve raw sources of scandium, others are advancing rare earth element separation technology, which, while not specifically targeting scandium, likely includes its recovery given its presence among the suite of REEs.

• American Resources Corp., through its ReElement Technologies subsidiary, is developing its proprietary ligand assisted displacement (LAD) chromatography REE separation technology. This method allows scalable production volumes to process multiple feedstocks, likely including scandium.

• US Critical Materials Corp. is collaborating with Idaho National Laboratory (INL) to develop advanced separation methods for rare earth elements. This collaboration focuses on creating environmentally sound techniques to extract rare earths and critical minerals from carbonatite ores at its Sheep Creek project in Montana, which includes high-grade rare earths and scandium, aiming to contribute to a stable supply of critical minerals.

• Rare Earth Salts Separations and Refining LLC has developed its proprietary electrochemical process for high-purity separation and refining of rare earth elements from various feedstocks, including both ore-based and recycled materials. The company's environmentally friendly technology at its Nebraska facility focuses on producing critical rare earth oxides like neodymium, praseodymium, and terbium and will most likely include scandium.

• Phoenix Tailings, Inc., is operating the first rare earth metal refinery in the U.S., using proprietary processes to produce elements like neodymium and dysprosium with zero toxic byproducts and zero direct carbon emissions. This technology potentially includes scandium recovery, contributing to a sustainable domestic supply chain for critical minerals.

The expansion of scandium production in North America marks a significant step toward securing a stable supply of this critical mineral. By leveraging innovative technologies and strategic collaborations, companies across the continent are not only addressing current demand but also preparing for future needs.

These efforts ensure that North America can reduce its reliance on imports, mitigate geopolitical risks, and support high-tech and defense industries with future reliable sources of scandium. As these projects continue to develop, the United States has begun the shift for one commodity out of reliance and into independence.